Loss of Biodiversity Due to Pollution Research Paper

Loss of Biodiversity Due to Pollution - Research Paper Example The Gulf of Mexico is opulent in biodiversity and exceptional habitats, and hosts the solitary recognized nesting shoreline of Kemp’s Ridley, the world’s rare sea turtle. It has an interesting circulation array which stretches it organic and socioeconomic significance; water from the Caribbean come into commencing the south over the Yucatan Channel amid Cuba and Mexico and, after warming up in the basin, goes out over the northern Florida Canal amid the United States and Cuba to produce the Gulf River in the North Atlantic that assists to standardize the macroclimate of the western Europe. Creeks and bays are public along Gulf seashores with other reefs, sea grasses, and coastal wetlands, principally Spartina alterniflora, usual in the north, and certain oyster’s ridges, native to national sea greenswards, and mangrove forests in the south. Off shore, coral ridges are conjoint in several areas in the southern Gulf, alongside northwest Cuba, beside Florida Keys, and one district off Texas. Creatures that call Gulf of Mexico home vary from infinitesimal to gigantic. (Day, 2013). Gulf Oil Spill Gulf oil spill is acknowledged as the nastiest spill in the account of United States. Inhabitants from the Gulf of Mexico echo that, tallies of fish, mantra rays, sharks, dolphins and sea turtles are escaping the spirals of oil and cleaners to the trivial waters off the coasts of Alabama and Florida. Marine biologists suggest that these animals feel the adjustment in water chemistry and attempt to drip the polluted water dead zones by swimming in the direction of the oxygen rich shallows (National Research Council, 2012). Immediate Impact Under normal Gulf season, death is expected during laying and nesting period (Marion, 2011). The oil spills instantaneously endangered brown pelican, the egrets, the laughing gulls and other shore and migrant birds, beached with greased fuzz as they strained to rear their young nestlings. Their fledglings faced and still face an indeterminate future, as they begin their expedition on infested water. Dead and vanishing sea creatures still attempt to leak from the oxygen depreciated water, because of methane gas from the oil, which depletes oxygen at a very high speed, as illustrated in the pictures below (Benn & Bolton, 2011). Physical Effects Physical effects comprise of demise by asphyxia, with oil hindering air openings or gills. By numbing sensual organs, oil upsets creatures’ ability to discover food or sense predators. Many birds and other inhabitants succumbed to death as a consequence of hypothermia, bec ause oil led to lessening of the protecting effect of plumages and fur. Since the oil spill, crabs have been documented hiking out of water, as a toxic gleam approaches the shoreline. During morning hours, they are observed floating stomach up in the water, in a bid to get more oxygen. Nevertheless, the air they inhale is loaded with chemicals blowing up from the water (National Research Council, 2012). Impact of the oil spill on coral reefs presents unique physical conditions. This is because healthy coral reefs are amongst the most organically assorted and economically treasured ecologies on earth, providing vital ecosystem services. They are a foundation of nourishment for millions, guard seashores from storms and corrosion, offer habitation, procreating and nursery lands for economically essential fish species, offer businesses and revenue to local economies from angling, leisure, and tourism, are a basis of treatments, and hotspots for aquatic multiplicity. Immediate spill resu lted to death of some corals, leading to subsequent smothering and sinking of them. Over time, reduction of photosynthesis, development and reproduction has been documented. Regardless of this, the extent of coral reef damage unswervingly attributable to the Gulf Spill has remained unusually minor (Marion, 2011). Toxic effects Skin ulcerations, destruction to the spleen, liver, lungs and

Macroeconomics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Macroeconomics - Assignment Example The government therefore has to increase their purchases of these products to the same amount as that planned for reduction in the investment spending. c. A change in taxes can produce the same result. This is because taxes affect the production of companies. When taxes are reduced, companies can use that money elsewhere such as for investment purposes, they will also be motivated to increase their production as they will be paying lower taxes. d. In a balanced budget economy law makers have to be very keen on the fiscal policies that they put in place so as to restore the economy to full employment. The most feasible way this can be done is by taking of loans to invest in other areas that will be repaid over time. The blue line in the graph represents the total demand. The red line in the graph represents the total supply of goods and services. The black line represents the economy’s capacity in the long run. The equilibrium where they intersect is the potential output. a) When people buy goods and services using money the money is handed over to the stores who in turn pay their suppliers. The money circulates in the economy and is used by various people. The money supply is therefore maintained. When people use credit banks to pay for their shopping, there is no money that exchanges hands. This leads to a decrease in the money supply in the economy. b) To reduce money supply the bank should increase lending rates. Higher rates mean that fewer people will be willing to borrow money from the bank and over time, there will be a decrease in the money supply within the economy. A. i) The purchasing power parity theory is concerned with the exchange rates (Blaug, 2006). Therates of exchange between two currencies are at equilibrium as long as their domestic purchasing power at a given exchange rate is equal. In this case, Gold should cost the same in both Mexico and U.S after taking into account the interest

Motivation Bulletin Board Post Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Motivation Bulletin Board Post - Assignment Example The driven-reduction theory can apply to my guilt over leaving my homework too late, or the stress of knowing how much I have been putting off and how much I will have to do to catch up. Regardless of which, these feelings increase as I put off what I have to do, and what should have been done days ago. Not wanting to feel guilty or stressed, I feel the need to actually do the tasks to deplete these feelings. The less that I want to experience these feelings, the more I get done in regard to school and homework. The longer I can put off experiencing these emotions, the more willing I am to get work done. The optimal arousal theory relates to the success that I want to feel as a student. When I have my work done and I am feeling good about where I am with school, then I have reached my optimal level. I become inspired to do my best so that I may inherently feel that I have indeed done the best of my abilities. It is a wonderful feeling of accomplishment when I focus hours on end to finish my work, and actually finish my work. The incentive theory, in regards to my school situation, allows me to reward myself for getting good grades on tests or homework, or for completing projects well before they are due. When I offer myself an award prior to my doing something, I feel more eager to complete the task and obtain that treat. Once I realized that I was more anxious to get something done knowing that something better was waiting for me, I would focus more on the task at hand. Such rewards would vary from simply taking a break or going out to the movies with friends. I would treat myself for a job well

Restaurant Concept Project Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Restaurant Concept Project - Term Paper Example This restaurant project involves the purchase of an antique, 19th Century Hong Kong â€Å"junk† boat, and deconstructing the boat’s elements to become the decoration for a restaurant interior. The decor will follow a design developed by Robert D. Henry Architects in New York, but transform it so that the antique wood of the ship and the old carvings of the hull will be prominently displayed. These elements will be used throughout the restaurant interior, for example in the main bar area and the greeting lobby. The design is for an upscale Chinese restaurant in the downtown San Jose area, near to the HP Pavilion. The area includes many of the five-star hotels of San Jose, as well as being located near to San Jose State University. The combination of business, tourism, and retail shopping in the neighborhood is well established. The plan is targeting a second floor location on South First Street in San Jose, above an existing cafe-restaurant establishment. The Sailing Boa t restaurant will also have bar, lounge area, and dance floor so during the weekend it can set up like a club in order to attract more customers. Contemporary Hong Kong Junk in Traditional Style + Source: (Travel with a Challenge, 2011) Concept Development The traditional Hong Kong junk boat is known worldwide as a historical symbol of the city, yet it is a tradition that is rapidly being superseded by new technologies. The Sailing Boat restaurant is based on an upscale Chinese restaurant plan with a specialization in Hong Kong and fusion cuisine. The restaurant will involve the purchase of an antique Hong Kong junk boat and then deconstructing it into a series of panels that will be finished and restored to be used as the side panels in the restaurant. Similarly, the masts, sails, deck, and interior elements will be taken apart from the antique boat, restored, and used to build the bar, restaurant decorations, and main lobby / greeting area. The panels of the ship will be reconstru cted in the restaurant interior following a plan developed by Robert D. Henry Architects in New York, and will involve a renovation of the location as well as specialist crew for the ship preservation work. Restaurant Interior - Robert D. Henry Architects, New York (Interior Design News, 2011) The antique wood from the ships sides will be reformatted into panels approximately 10 to 12 feet square that will provide the covering for the walls behind the tables in the dining rooms, lounge, bar area, reception, and lobbies. Contemporary wood floor tiles will be used and the antique Hong Kong junk ship’s elements will be used in the corners, to build buffet elements, as the bar, and in the lounge are as a special theme. The antique Hong Kong junk ships typically had an elaborately carved set of railings, hull, and upper deck that will be perfect as the backdrop of a restaurant. By abstracting the ship elements into a modern restaurant design, the decor of The Sailing Boat

Employer Compliance with the Patriot Act Essay Example for Free

Employer Compliance with the Patriot Act Essay Section 215 of the Patriot Act is an amendment to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 which states the federal government can request, and obtain, any â€Å"tangible things (including books, records, papers, documents, and other items) for an investigation to protect against international terrorism or clandestine intelligence activities† (Aftab, 2003). This information may include E-mail messages, telecommunications, search engine audits, etc. Privacy laws state that disclosure of personally identifiable information can only be requested via a court order or subpoena. A company may face legal liability if it voluntarily complies with a government request for personal information. It is often a direct violation of posted privacy policies in an employee manual. This is considered a contract between the employer and employee and if it is breached, the company may be sued, particularly if there is no explanation regarding the process to be followed in the instance of receiving a court order or warrant. Compliance with the Patriot Act could violate non-disclosure and confidentiality agreements, as well. References Aftab, Parry (October 20, 2003). â€Å"The Privacy Lawyer: Patriotism, Compliance and Confidentiality†. Information Week. Retrieved February 29, 2008 from the Information Week Website: http://www.informationweek.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=15306232.

Chef Satisfaction Essay Example for Free

Chef Satisfaction Essay The findings showed that employees’ job satisfaction directly and positively influences organizational commitment, but does not directly influence job performance. Employees’ job satisfaction enhances job performance only through organizational commitment. Internal marketing, empowerment and leadership also positively influence job satisfaction. Empowerment and leadership enhance employees’ organizational commitment. Internal job stress negatively influences employees’ job satisfaction and external job stress enhances employees’ job performance. According to the findings, this paper realized the main factors which influence hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance, which can function as criteria for human resource management in the hospitality industry. Key words: Hospitality industry, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job performance.   With the change of the industrial structure in recent years, the output value of the service industry has become more than 70% of the GDP in most advanced countries (CIA, 2009). Thus, the service industry plays a significant role in national economic development. In 2008, as the world encountered a financial tsunami, the governments of different countries selected potential service industries and supported them with resources, in order to energize economic development. The hospitality industry is a typical service industry, and it is critical service industry around the world. In Taiwan, the scale of the hospitality industry has been increasing year by year. According to the Statistics Department, Ministry of Economic Affairs, in 2001 the business volume of the hospitality industry in Taiwan was NTD 261. 3 billion. In 2006 it passed NTD 300 billion and in 2009 it reached NTD 321. 7 billion. However, the hospitality industry refers to labor services and relies on manpower in areas such as production, delivery and restaurant service. Thus, the hospitality industry is mainly based on services. As mentioned in Bitner’s (1995) framework of the service marketing triangle, service providers play a critical role in the service industries. In service industry management, regarding the importance of employees, Heskett et al. (1994) proposed the framework of service profit chain. In the service profit chain, there are critical linkages among internal service *Corresponding author. E-mail: [emailprotected] tcmt. edu. tw. Tel: +886-2-28102292 ext. 5009. Fax: +886-2-2810-6688. Tsai et al. 4119 quality, employee satisfaction/productivity, the value of services provided to the customer, customer satisfaction and company’s profits. This chain shows that internal service quality can enhance employee satisfaction, which will enhance employee productivity and further result in external service value and enhanced customer satisfaction. Finally, the company can make a profit (Zeithaml et al. , 2009). Therefore, satisfied employees make satisfied customers. Service personnel satisfaction significantly influences organizational commitment and job performance on customer satisfaction and corporate operational performance (Ladkin, 2002; Dunlap et al. , 1988; Tansuhaj et al. , 1988; Chowdhary, 2003; Yang and Chen, 2010). How to enhance service personnel satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance is a critical issue in service industry management. In past research on employee satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance, many scholars (Babin and Boles, 1998; Bernhardt et al. 2000; Van Scotter, 2000; Koys, 2003; Testa, 2001) have validated that employees’ job satisfaction positively influences job performance and organizational commitment. In studies on factors of employees’ job satisfaction, job performance and organizational commitment, the service profit chain proposed by Heskett et al. (1994) and service marketing management model indica ted by Tansuhaj et al. (1988) on overall service industry both demonstrated that managements internal marketing activities produce job satisfaction and commitment to the organization. In addition, many studies have found close relationships between leadership, employee satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance (Billingsley and Cross, 1992; Yammarino and Dubinsky, 1994; Burton et al. , 2002; Avolio et al. , 2004; Chen and Silverthorne, 2005). The above studies have mainly focused on the educational service industry, retail industry, manufacturing service industry, medical service industry and governmental institutions, but have not conducted indepth explorations on the hospitality service industry. Hopfl (1994) indicated that in the service delivery, firstline employees must be empowered to some degree in order to cope with customers’ special demands. Thus, job empowerment can be treated as important management to encourage first-line service personnel and immediately solve customers’ differential demands. Avolio et al. (2004), Caykoylu et al. (2007) and Chen et al. (2008) respectively conducted empirical studies on medical personnel and employees of the telecommunication industry, banking industry and postal industry, and found that empowerment positively influences employee satisfaction and organizational commitment. One issue worthy of further study is the extent of how empowerment positively influences hospitality industry employee satisfaction and organizational commitment. In addition, first-line employees face different customer demands and supervisor requirements, therefore job stress is a critical issue for them. Jamal (1990) and Jex (1998) suggested that reducing employees’ job stress could enhance employees’ job satisfaction and job performance. Williams and Cooper (2002) and Ouyang (2009) indicated that proper job stress would enhance employees’ job performance. In the hospitality industry, the influence of job stress from external customers and internal supervisors on employees’ job satisfaction and job performance is an issue worthy of further exploration. Based on the above, internal marketing, leadership, empowerment and job stress are possible factors of service industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance, and these factors are validated in various service industries. However, the outcomes in different service industries are not the same. For the hospitality industry, it is important to validate and analyze the influences of the above factors on employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance. Thus, this study intended to combine internal marketing, leadership, empowerment and job stress and proposed an integrated model of hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance. Hospitality industry employees in Taipei City were treated as the subjects, and the researcher probed into factors of hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance in order to function as criteria for management in the hospitality industry. LITERATURE REVIEW Job satisfaction The term â€Å"job satisfaction† was proposed by Hoppock (1935) who suggested that job satisfaction means employees’ emotions and attitude toward their jobs, and is their subjective reaction toward their jobs. The definition of job satisfaction is generalized into three categories: (1) Definition of generality: Job satisfaction refers to the affective reaction to one’s job as the most (Ozer and Gunluk, 2010). Job satisfaction, which is one of the most important necessities for an individual to be successful, happy and productive, is a feeling of satisfaction, that is, an outcome of the perception of what the job provides for an individual (Ay and Av aro lu, 2010); (2) Definition of difference: This refers to the degree of satisfaction and the difference between ndividual actual returns and required returns. For instance, Porter and Lawler (1968) suggested that the degree of satisfaction depends on the difference between a person’s actual returns and expected returns; (3) Definition of criterion framework: Peoples subjective perception and interpretation on objective traits of organizations or jobs would be influenced by individual criterion framework. According to Smith et al. (1969), job satisfaction is the outcome after a person interprets the job traits according 4120 Afr. J. Bus. Manage. o the criterion framework. The influence of certain work situations on job satisfaction is related to many factors, such as comparisons between good and bad jobs, comparisons with others, personal competency and past experience, etc. Job performance Kane and Lawler (1976) suggested that job performance refers to the record of the results when employees have practiced a job for a certain period of time. According to Schermerhorn (1989), job performance refers to the quality and quantity accomplished by individuals or groups after fulfilling a task. After a certain period of time, measurements of employees’ job performance could serve as criterion for promotions, wage adjustments, rewards, punishments and evaluations. Cascio (2006) suggested that managers must specifically define performance to allow the teams or employees to recognize the organizational expectations in order to fulfill the organizational goals. In other words, managers must set concrete goals, trace the fulfillment degree and evaluate the teams’ or employees’ performance. Van Scotter and Motowidlo (1996) suggested that employees with a high degree of job enthusiasm will demonstrate extra effort and devotion, and will actively seek out solutions to problems at work in order to enhance their job performance. Robbins (1998) divided the measurement of job performance into job result, job behavior and personal traits. Lee et al. (1999) divided job performance into efficiency, efficacy and quality. Efficiency refers to the employees’ output rate and is the ability to accomplish tasks before deadline. Efficacy refers to the employees’ goal accomplishment rate and proposals. Quality refers to the employees’ error rate and complaint rate, supervisor satisfaction, customer satisfaction and colleague satisfaction. This study suggested that in the application of this construct to measure hospitality industry employees’ job performance, efficiency should refer to the employees’ speed in customer service, efficacy should mean the accomplishment of tasks assigned by customers, and quality should mean the employees’ performance in customer service. As to measurement, Shore and Thornton (1986) indicated that self-evaluation allows individuals to participate in performance evaluation and serves as a criterion. Based on the above, according to the views of Lee et al. (1999), this study divided job performance into efficiency, efficacy and quality, and measured hospitality industry employees’ job performance using employee self-evaluation. Smith et al. (1969) proposed the Job Description Index (JDI) to measure job satisfaction, with the constructs including wage, promotion, job, supervisors and colleagues. Black and Gregersen (1997) found a positive correlation between job satisfaction and job performance. Organ (1990) suggested that when employees are satisfied with their work, they are willing to sacrifice themselves and devote to their organization. Organizational commitment From the perspective of attitude, Porter et al. (1974) indicated that organizational commitment is a person’s active and positive intention to identify with and internalize organizational goals and value. According to Reyes and Pounder (1990), organizational commitment is the strong belief and intention to identify with organizational value, devote to and stay with the organization. Mathews and Shepherd (2002) suggested that organizational commitment refers to workers’ attitude, behavior and connection between individuals and the organization. Guest (1995) indicated that organizational commitment is at the core of human resource management. It transforms traditional manpower management into the core of human resources. Organizational members’ attitude or intentions particularly indicate the importance of employees’ organizational commitment. Dee et al. (2006) suggested that organizational commitment is a person’s intention to devote to and be loyal to the organization. Lambert et al. (2006) suggested that organizational commitment is the structural phenomenon of trading between individuals and organizations. It increases with time, but it does not lead to a transferable investment outcome. Thus, in theoretical study and practical use, scholars have valued organizational commitment in human resource management. In recent years, many scholars have probed into organizational commitment from the view of Porter et al. (1974). Thus, this study also followed the above view and divided organizational commitment into value commitment, effort commitment and retention commitment. This study further treated these three constructs as criteria to measure hospitality industry employees organizational commitment. Definitions of these constructs are thus shown: (1) Value commitment: a strong belief and identification with organizational goals and values. 2) Effort commitment: the intention to devote more to the organization. (3) Retention commitment: a strong intention to continue being part of the organization. Internal marketing Internal Marketing (IM) is the process of handling staff as internal customers and projects as internal products that satisfy the needs and desires of the customers and adhere to the company’s goals (Berry and Parasuraman, 1991). Rafiq and Ahmed (1993) suggest that internal marketing involves â€Å"a planned effort to overcome organizational resistance to change and to align, motivate Tsai et al. 4121 nd integrate employees towards the effective implementation of corporate and functional strategies†. Joseph (1996) suggested that internal marketing is can be applied to marketing and human resource management, combining theoretical techniques and principles in order to encourage, recruit and manage all employees in the organization and constantly improve external customer service and mutual services. In addition, Ahmed et al. (2003) defined internal marketing as the emp loyees’ evaluation of the reward system, internal communication, training and development of the company. Internal marketing empirical research in the service sector has proven that internal marketing has influenced on internal customers (that is, employees) satisfactions. Berry and Parasuraman (1991) suggested that the advantages of internal marketing implementation in organizations are as follows: (1) To acquire and keep excellent talent; (2) to provide a common vision so that employees have job purpose and meaning; (3) to give employees the ability and knowledge to accomplish the work; (4) to encourage employees to share the results of teamwork; (5) to create job designs be based on the findings of marketing studies. The aforementioned views reveal that corporate implementation of internal marketing allows employees to enhance service quality, which increases the production and profits of the companies. The implementation of internal marketing in the organizations results in an internal service culture, raises service consciousness and increases profits (Parasuraman et al. , 1985). Based on the views of these scholars, internal marketing is critical for organizations and influences external marketing to further enhance customer satisfaction. According to the these definitions and based on the views of Rafiq and Ahmed (1993) and Ahmed et al. (2003), this study treated employee evaluations of reward systems, internal communication, and training and development of companies as criterion for measuring internal marketing of the hospitality industry. Leadership Leadership refers the process of influencing the team to accomplish the goals (Robbins and Coulter, 2005). Leaders are key success factors of an organization (Bass, 1985; Daft, 2002). Skillful leaders recognize and use the interpersonal relationships of the team and strengthen the members’ loyalty and morale. Effective leaders must learn skills such as patiently sharing information, trusting others and recognizing the timing of interventions (Steckler and Fondas, 1995). In recent years, numerous scholars have tried to discuss leadership from new perspectives. New studies of leadership theory have particularly stressed the influences of demands between leaders and subordinates, the interaction of personality traits and situational factors on leadership (Bargal and Schmid, 1989). Corporate leaders must select a proper leadership according to their subordinates’ different demands for supervision, in order to enhance employee satisfaction and fulfill expected goals. Bass and Avolio (1997) divided leadership into transformational leadership and transactional leadership. In transformational leadership, subordinates trust, respect and are loyal to their leaders. Leaders can develop their subordinates’ potential and enhance their confidence by changing their values and beliefs in order to increase their organizational commitment, intention and motivation to create exceptional outcomes. Transformational leadership can be divided into ideal traits, ideal behavior, the encouragement of inspiration, and the stimulation of wisdom and individual care. In addition, transactional leadership means leaders and members remain in the process of negotiation and mutual benefit instead of a persistent one-purpose relationship. Social exchange theory is treated as the theoretical base. When subordinates act according to their leaders’ expectations, they will have returns with a specific value. Transactional leadership can be divided into contingent rewards, and active and passive exceptional management. Most quantitative studies on leadership have created questionnaires using the MLQ scale designed by Bass and Avolio (1997). The MLQ scale includes two constructs (transformational leadership and transactional leadership). This study also designed a leadership questionnaire for the hospitality industry according to the MLQ scale. Empowerment Empowerment signals a transition away from traditional development that confined people’s role to that of passive recipients, effectively rendering them dependent on handouts in the form of foreign aid (O’Gorman, 1995). Bowen and Lawler III (1992) define empowerment as sharing with frontline employees four organizational ingredients: (1) Information about the organizations performance; (2) rewards based on the organizations performance; (3) knowledge about contributing to organizational performance; (4) power to make decisions that influence organizational direction and performance. Murat and Thomas (2003) suggested that empowerment does not simply refer to telling employees that they are empowered, but aims to allow the employees to recognize what power has been authorized. Boudrias et al. (2004) suggested that in managerial circles, empowerment application includes two types: (1) Empowering the responsibility of decision-making to subordinates while emphasizing rich work environments 4122 Afr. J. Bus. Manage. and diverse authority, information, resources and support, and providing the opportunity to learn in order to improve performance; (2) psychological empowerment, which refers to employees’ experiences of empowerment that are inferred as a mediating variable of empowerment and expected results. According to Sherman (1996), empowerment acknowledges that employees have the power to change in order to encourage employees to increase their competency. Kanter (1993) suggested that empowerment can keep employees from feeling helpless. Organizations could thus reduce negative effects such as low morale. The most significant effect of empowerment is to enhance employees’ abilities and self-efficacy (Conger and Kanungo, 1988). Bowen and Lawler III (1992) suggested the advantages of empowerment for organizations below: (1) To rapidly respond to customer demands and questions; (2) a high degree of employees’ job satisfaction; (3) positive interactions with consumers; (4) employees with creative thoughts; (5) the creation of loyal customers. About the definition of psychological empowerment, Spreitzer (1995) defines this concept as the psychological state that employees must experience for managerial empowerment interventions to be successful.

Crime Scene Management: Challenges Faced

Crime Scene Management: Challenges Faced Crime scene management has evolved to meet the challenges of todays crime scene experts. There have been a lot of changes over the past 75 years, especially in the type of evidence which can now be recovered and the investigative tools used to process it. The employment of qualified Scientific Support Managers take charge of all experts involved at a scene and this ensures evidence is recovered In-tact and un-compromised. The following paper shows how modern scene management methods are used to investigate the Ruxton case today. The Initial Call A hill walker in the south of Scotland, spots an arm reaching up out of the river. She immediately calls 999 and Police officers are dispatched to her location. Actions of the First Officers at the Scene (FAO) Quick preservation is the key to success in recovering evidence from any scene. Crime scenes are easily compromised and evidence can be destroyed by walking over or moving any items before experts have cleared the area. Locards Principle In 1921 Locards Principle was founded and it simply states every contact leaves a trace there is always evidence at a scene and failure to find evidence may be due to Poor preservation and search techniques. The officers contact their supervisor as to what they found and requested a Senior Investigating Officer (SIO) to attend the location. FOAs now cordoned off the scene and identify safe parking for technical bureau vehicles. A logbook is opened to record all personnel who attend the scene. Major Crime Scene Management Towards the end of the 1980s it was decided new management and training techniques were required and the roll of Crime Scene Manager was developed. The establishment of the National Training Centre provide crime scene investigators with higher standards of training. (As per G. Keeling and A. Scott Crime scene management workbook, P4) Proper management of staff at major crime scenes was found to be paramount if an investigation is to be successful. All major crime scenes present complex issues which may lead to misunderstandings and conflicts between the various forensic teams. A co-ordinated approach to the investigation is essential and must be agreed by all the various experts if the investigation is to be handled properly. (As per G. Keeling and A. Scott Crime scene management workbook, P14) The management structure includes: Senior Investigation Officer (SIO) Scientific Support Co-ordinator (SSC) Crime Scene Co-ordinator (CSC) Crime Scene Manager (CSM) Exhibits Officer In major crime scenes the SIO will seek the assistance of a Senior Forensic Scientist to co-ordinate with the forensic laboratory. Senior Investigation Officer The Senior Investigating Officer (SIO) is the principle decision maker in the investigation and will control the enquiry with the management team. (see fig 2) Scientific Support Co-ordinator This Scientific Support Co-ordinator manages and co-ordinates the various scientific support teams (outlined later) and advises the SIO on the scientific support strategy. The Crime Scene Co-ordinator The CSC advises the SIO on contamination issues. If it becomes obvious this is not the primary crime scene then the CSC will coordinate personnel at all the various scenes. The Crime Scene Manager The CSM is an experienced CSI who will take control of the scene and is responsible for all matters relating to its examination. The CSM is the liaison between the SIO and CSIs.(See fig 3) (As per G. Keeling and A. Scott Crime scene management workbook, P14) Exhibits Officer This detective is in charge of keeping all evidence secure. The exhibits officer records, catalogues and assigns exhibit numbers to each piece of evidence i.e. LCH1. The incident Room Information is controlled and stored in the incident room using a computer system first introduced in the UK in 1986 known as HOLMES (Home Office Large Major Enquiry System). The Incident room provides the SIO with accurate up to date information on the examination of evidence. The Incident room also provides a two way information system for detectives during the investigation. Police and staff at the scene include Personnel under the control of The Scientific Support Co-ordinator include: The Crime Scene Investigator is responsible for persevering and collecting evidence at the scene. The Photographer provides a full pictorial record of the scene and the Post Mortem and produces albums for trial. The Surveyor provides detail maps and plans of the scene. The Fingerprint Lab tech is used to recover prints at a scene. The Fingerprint expert is used to examine prints at a scene and aid in eliminating any persons who have cause to be a scene. Experts provided by the Forensic Science Service (FSS) include: Entomologists Anthropologists Forensic Psychologists Forensic Archaeologists Chemist Biologist Dynamic Risk Assessment Under the Health Safety at work Act 1974 The Crime Scene Manager completes a Dynamic Risk Assessment for every scene which addresses: Water born hazards (drowning, weils disease) Biological issues (HIV/AIDS/HEP AB) Personal injury Items infested with parasites Unsafe areas Welfare issues which must be addressed:- Meal breaks WC facilities, Weather conditions Critical Stress Debriefing Personnel working at this scene were presented with a horrendous sight of decomposed and butchered body parts strewn across the area. All staff must be offered the opportunity to undertake Critical Stress Debriefing. Contamination Matrix The Crime Scene manager compiles a Contamination Matrix which ensures no person or vehicle attends more than one scene. This will eliminate any possibility of cross contamination. The Forensic strategy The SIO needs the following questions to be answered:- Are the parts human Could the remains be animals? Who is the deceased The victim(s) needs to be identified as soon as possible. Age and sex of the victim(s) Age and gender of the victim will aid in the identification process. Time and date of death The pathologist will be able to determine a rough time of death and an entomologist may be able to produce an estimated date of death. Cause of death The pathologists will give an indication of how the victim(s) died. Can a suspect be eliminated There is no point spending money investigating an innocent person. Can evidence prove this person is or is not a suspect? Is this linked to another crime If this crime is linked to another crime, evidence and investigations from the other crime scenes may be able to direct investigators to a suspect. (As per G. Keeling and A. Scott Crime Scene Management workbook, P20) Using the forensic strategy it is important to keep an open mind and read the scene based on knowledge and experience as the facts fall into place, testing each hypothesis as it develops. (As per P. White From Crime Scene to Court P47) A.B.C Model Assume nothing Believe no one Check everything (See Fig 4) Agreeing and delivering a forensic strategy Once a forensic strategy has been decided the SIO and CSM must before the investigation can continue. The SIO records the agreed strategy in the investigation policy book and the CSM records the strategy in the scene management log. Recording the forensic strategy To avoid any misunderstanding between the SIO and CSM the scene log is updated with actions identified in the forensic strategy. The log is also updated with the outcomes from briefings, meetings and directions to the CSIs. Delivering the forensic Strategy The CSM is responsible for Planning, coordinating and managing the search and recovery of evidence. The CSM details tasks and activities from the strategy to the forensic teams. (As per G. Keeling and A. Scott Crime Scene Management workbook, P21) Managing Police and Forensic experts at the scene Processing a crime scene involves a team of experts who can deal with any piece of evidence uncovered during an investigation. These experts need to be managed and coordination to avoid any overlaps during their examinations. (As per G. Keeling and A. Scott Crime Scene Management workbook, P21) Major Crime Scene vehicles The attendance of a Major Crime Scene Vehicle is requested. (See fig 6). This vehicle will act as a command post to allow briefings to be held on site. Crime scene vehicles also attend which contain equipment such as lighting, tarpaulin, plastic tape and any non-routine equipment needed at an external crime scene. (As per P. White From Crime Scene to Court P46) Immediate Search The CSM contacts Police Search Advisors (POLSA) who are trained in systematic searching techniques for large areas. A fingertip search of the area is conducted to locate evidence. The CSIs will recover and transfer the evidence to the Exhibits Officer to hold until their value to the investigation is ascertained. (As per P. White From Crime Scene to Court P49) Recovery of Evidence The CSM produces an Evidence Recovery Plan which outlines the steps required before any piece of evidence is recovered. Sequencing of examination The Sequencing of Examinations must always be done in such a way that the recovery process does not destroy other evidence. Evidence should be processed in this order:- Pictorial record and sketches of the position of the item Recovery of fragile evidence first i.e. DNA, fibres Fingerprinting (As per G. Keeling and A. Scott Crime Scene Management workbook, P22) The Planning Cycle NEW INFORMATION New information can be obtained from any source at any time STOP stop and obtain a briefing ASSESS Using the CSMs initial questions. What do I know? Now formulate a plan, immediate action required PLAN What specialists do I require? Is my Evidence Recovery Plan in place. REVIEW review the actions put in place (See fig 5) Cordons The CSM will confirm the positions of the cordons are. The CSM will identify the position of a second outer cordon. Once the inner cordon is in place, only personnel wearing PPE will be allowed pass. Crime Scene Surveillance All personnel will be aware a suspect may be present or revisit the scene during the investigation asking questions. It is best practice that details are recorded of any person enquiring about the scene or vehicles driving around the area. (As per G. Keeling and A. Scott Crime Scene Management workbook, P11) Common Approach Path (CAP) A common approach path is established to allow access to the scene. This is completed by identifying a route to the scene which would not likely to have been used by the suspect. This route is subjected to a fingertip search and a full video and photographic record is completed. Once this route is established the CSM, SIO, Pathologist and Forensic Scientist will approach the main area where the biggest concentration of the body parts are located. Body parts Body parts are placed in new plastic body bags and labelled appropriately. The body parts are accompanied back to the morgue by the Crime Scene Manager and a Police Officer. The Officer will remain with the bodies for the duration until the Post Mortem is completed. Under Water Search Unit An Under Water Search Unit is bought in and will search the river to recover body parts and the instruments used in the possible murder and dissection of the bodies. The Post Mortem The Pathologist will systematically examine the body to establish cause and time of death. An attempt to identify the weapon and instrument used to dissect the bodies will be made. A full video and photographic record including sketches are made for each step. The Pathologist will take various samples, blood, hair (head body), DNA and swabs from all body orifices and send to the lab for processing. The Anthropologist An Anthropologist will aid in the identification and reassembly of skeletonised remains of the victims. (see fig 8) Examination of the skulls Examination of the skulls can give an estimated age and gender of the victims. It is estimated the shorter body is aged between 20 and 30 years and female. The taller of the two bodies was approximately between 30 and 40 years of age, also female. The Entomologist Examining maggots recovered from the scene the Entomologist constructs a timeline using the insects life cycles to estimate the date of death. This date coincides with the date on the newspaper which some of the body parts were wrapped in. Cause of death The taller woman had damaged of the hyoid bone consistent with strangulation. Five stab wounds to the chest were found. The smaller womans skull was fractured and her tongue shows signs of swelling consistent with asphyxia. When the PM is complete the Senior Investigation Officer asks the Pathologist for a cause of death. Results of the Post Mortem The post mortem has proven there are two bodies, both female, one in her twenties and the other in her thirties. The bodies were dismembered using a knife at the joints. The Pathologists concluded the bodies were mutilated to prevent identification and possibility by somebody with medical training. Both victims died a violent death. After the PM the coroner is informed and takes responsibility for the bodies until they are released for burial. . Finger and palm prints Automatic Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS) developed in the late 80s is now widely used in Police forces all over the world. Palm and fingerprints of the victims are taken and entered onto the AFIS system for possible identification or comparison later. Tool-marks Tool marks on the bones are casted and confirmed they were made by a knife. Facial Reconstruction 2D facial reconstruction was first used in Texas during the 1980s (As per Reichs and Craig. Facial Approximation: procedures and pitfalls) and allows the forensic artists to reconstruct faces on the skulls. 3D facial re-construction can also be done by using clay or 3D computer software using known profiles for race, age, and gender. The reconstructed face is photographed or printed and submitted to the incident room. (See fig 11) Further examination of the scene During the Post Mortem, searching the scene and the river continued and the cordons reviewed. Potential evidence such as footprints, drag marks, clothing snags and blood is recovered and examined for intelligence. Final inventory Once the scene has been fully examined, a final inventory is compiled of whats left and not removed. This will insure whatever is left is not part of the investigation. Although this is normally completed on an inside scene there is merit for carrying out this process for every scene. De-commissioning the scene Before the scene is released it is good practice for an independent Crime Scene Manager to walk the scene to establish if there are any items of interest to the investigation overlooked. The SIO and CSM walk the entire scene and on completion the scene is released. Evidence recovered at the scene Each piece of evidence should be photographed in its location; sketches drawn of its exact location and when collected, packaged in its own separate container, labelled and exhibit numbers assigned. Evidence collected at the scene included: Various body parts Two skulls Maggots Newspaper A patched blouse Tyre tracks Footprints Fingerprints Control samples Tyre marks and footprints Casts of Foot prints and tyre tracks are made and recovered. Intelligence on the class characteristics of the tyre marks can establish a type of tyre present at the scene. The tyre marks can also be compared on the national tyre tread database. If a vehicle is later identified the individual characteristics of the tyre can be compared with the recovered casts. Foot prints recovered can be compared on the national shoe database and be matched to a suspects shoe. The Newspaper The newspaper is examined for fingerprints, handwriting, hairs, fibres, blood and DNA. This paper is the Sunday Graphic which displays the date and part of a headline which refers to a festival in Morecambe near Lancaster. Intelligence from the newspaper points the investigation team to believe the murders may have taken place in the Morecambe area and the bodies driven up to Scotland on or soon after the date on the newspaper. (Wilson Wilson 2003) Missing Persons Reports The investigating team now look at missing persons reports for women in their mid twenties and late thirties from around the Morecambe and Lancaster areas. Mary Jane Rogerson (see fig 10) was reported missing by her stepmother. She had been employed by a Doctor Ruxton, who lived in Lancaster. 34 year old Isabella Ruxton, Dr Ruxtons wife (see fig 9) was also reported missing by friends. These women are good matches to the images the forensic artists generated. The patched blouse The blouse is tested for the presence of hair, fibres and traces of DNA. Any recovered particulates are compared to the victim and possible suspects. A photo of the blouse was shown to Jessie Rogerson and identified as been owned by Mary Jane. Incident room Detectives now turn their attentions to Dr. Ruxton. (See fig 7) Crime Scene 2 (Dr. Ruxtons House) The First Officer on scene preserved the scene using barrier tape to restrict entry to the building. The suspects car and the area surrounding the vehicle is cordon off. The scene log book is started and only persons wearing full PPE can enter the building. The Scientific Support Officer reviews the cordons and the personnel required at the building. The SSO will take into account if there is evidence external to the building. The Contamination Matrix and Dynamic Risk Assessments are completed before any persons enter the building. The SSO marks out the common access to the building. Method of entry to the building will be determined by the Crime Scene Manager. Once the Evidence Recovery Plan is complete, the building is searched. Blood was found on the stairs and in the bathroom. Blood, DNA and other material was discovered in the bathtub. This evidence was recovered and sent to the lab for examination. This blood and DNA will be compared to DNA on file from the victims and on the national DNA database. Evidence recovered from the building included:- Fingerprints Blood Skin and Bone Fragments Hair and fibres Clothing from the victim and suspect The suspects shoes Knifes Dr Ruxtons Doctors Bag Medicines and drugs including their containers Various control samples Mobile phones Fingerprints recovered at the house are compared to the victims on AFIS. As the bodies showed stab wounds and was dissected, a search for any instrument capable of accomplishing this is carried out. Ruxtons Medical bag was collected and sent to the lab. Ruxten`s shoes was collected and soil samples compared to soil from the dump site. The size, make and sole patterns were recorded and compared with marks recovered at the dump site. The shoes were also examined for blood and other trace evidence. Ruxtons clothing was collected and examined for the presence of the victims blood and other trace evidence. The suspect and victims mobile phones are recovered. The phones software is interrogated for cell tower information which can track the movements of the phones imei numbers as they travel between cell towers. Call logs, text messages, photos and emails can be reviewed by investigators. Ruxtons Car The car is impounded, transported to a special examination centre and searched for evidence it transported a body. The vehicles tyres are compared against tyre-tracks recovered from the scene. Soil in the tyres is compared against soil from the dumpsite. The National Vehicle File The vehicles number-plate is checked against the National Vehicle File (NVF) for intelligence. This car was reported as having been involved in a hit and run in Kendal placing it near the crime scene around the estimated date of the murders. ANPR and Speed Enforcement Camera Systems The cars number-plate can also be checked against various databases such as:- Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) systems Gatso and Robot Speed enforcement cameras CCTV CCTV recordings are collected from Petrol stations, shops and Cafes along the entire route from Dalton Square to the crime scene in Scotland. Image annalists examined the recordings for sightings of Dr Ruxton or his car. Final Inventory A final inventory is conducted by an independent CSM and once the SIO is satisfied there is no more evidence to be recovered, the building as a scene is decommissioned. Post Scene Activity When all the scenes have been examined the incident management team develop and agree a submission policy. (As per G. Keeling and A. Scott Crime Scene Management workbook, P24) The SIO, CSM, SSO and the Exhibits Officer must meet once or twice daily and explore if there are any links between the scenes and the recovered evidence. The CSM will continue to meet and liaise with the SIO and on the progress of the evidence. (As per G. Keeling and A. Scott Crime Scene Management workbook, P24) Budgetary Control The SIO is responsible to keep control of expenditure during the investigation. The SIO will see that overtime is kept to a minimum and only staff working their normal shift are used. As external agencies charge for their services the SIO in consultation with the CSM prioritise evidence to be processed. As intelligence from the lab emerges evidence will move up or down in priority. Submission for finance will consider the following:- Evidence which will prove/disprove a suspects involvement Does the evidence corroborate the suspects, witnesses or victims version of events Will the examination of this evidence further the investigation If these criteria are fulfilled the CSM will authorise its examination. (As per G. Keeling and A. Scott Crime Scene Management workbook, P25) Statements of evidence Every person involved in the investigation will be required to provide a statement. Police and experts notebooks are obtained. These documents will be received, read, catalogued and exhibit numbers assigned. Copies of all documents and reports will be compiled into the book of evidence and submitted in the court file. Experts in court and the trial If the case goes to trial then experts will be required to present their findings on the evidence to the Judge and jury. The defence has the right to cross examine any witness and have any evidence independently examined. On completion of the evidence, the prosecution and defence barristers give their closing statements. The judge will then charge and send the jury to deliberate. The jury can at any stage request clarification on any piece of evidence. When deliberations have finished, the jury return a verdict. Conclusion The murder scene is, without a doubt, the most important crime scene an officer will be called to attend. Because of the nature of the crime death by violence or unnatural causes, the answer to what happened can only be determined after careful and intelligent examination of the crime scene. (Gerberth,.J. Practical Homicide investigation tactics, Procedures and forensics) This essay is based on the Jigsaw murders of 1936 where Dr. Ruxton was found guilty on both accounts of murdering his wife Isabella and their house maid Mary Rogerson. He was sentenced to death.